It’s one thing to know a historical figure or a date, but what are we supposed to do with this knowledge? How is this information used? How are links created between different areas of historical information?
This is where intellectual operations are used to give meaning to information we already have. For example, two facts can be used to complete several intellectual operations.
What could we say in connection with these two facts?
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The dissemination of humanist ideas
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The invention of the printing press
We could say that the printing press was invented before the broad dissemination of humanist ideas. This means that the invention of the printing press came before the broad dissemination of humanist ideas.
We could also say that the invention of the printing press led to humanist ideas being spread on a broader scale. Because the printing press made it much easier to reproduce texts, they became more accessible and could be read by a greater number of people. On the other hand, we could say that the broad dissemination of humanist ideas was a consequence of the invention of the printing press, for the same reasons.
This single example illustrates two intellectual operations, Situate in time and Determine causes and effects.
If you wish to learn more about the printing press and the dissemination of humanist ideas, see the concept sheet on Science During the Renaissance.
This example comes from the material available for Secondary 2.
Intellectual operations are methods developed to make it easier to study history and understand historical facts.
The word task and the word question are used to indicate the same thing, which is the action you must take.
A fact may be an event or an action that is confirmed and supported by evidence.
All intellectual operations are based on establishing a fact. Facts must be established so that we can distinguish similarities, determine causes or even set a chronological order.
We can say that an early form of democracy was developed in Athens during the 5th century BCE This is a fact that is supported by archeological evidence, by the writings of ancient authors and by studies carried out by historians.
This example comes from the material available for Secondary 1.
If you want to learn more about this intellectual operation, see the concept sheet Establish Facts.
This intellectual operation calls for the use of geographic maps and timelines in order to connect a fact with the right location. It can also refer to associating a fact with the right place in time. It can happen that a single element provides information about both space and time.
Mesopotamian civilization refers to the space occupied by this civilization, situated between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, during the period in which this civilization existed, from 3500 BCE to 539 BCE.
This example comes from the material available for secondary 1.
If you want to learn more about this intellectual operation, see the concept sheets Situate in Space and Situate in Time.
To establish a connection between facts means to associate a fact shown in a document with the right historical fact or the right historical reality.
Here are three documents that you must place in the right order in medieval society: the nobility, the clergy and the Third Estate.
| Document 1 | |
|---|---|
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Source: Jean Méliot, 15th century. |
Document 1 is an engraving depicting a monk transcribing manuscripts. |
| Document 2 | |
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Source: Unknown author, 15th century. |
Document 2 is an image of a battle between people wearing armour. |
| Document 3 | |
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Source: Unknown author, 1540. |
Document 3 is an image showing people plowing the earth and sowing seeds in a field. |
Using your knowledge, you know that monks are part of the clergy and that they copied many manuscripts. You can link Document 1 with this order in medieval society. You also know that the nobility was the order in society responsible for using weapons to defend the other two orders. You can link Document 2 with the nobility. The Third Estate had to provide for the other two orders, especially in terms of food. Since you know this, you can link Document 3 with this order.
Here is what your answer may look like.
| The nobility | The clergy | The Third Estate | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Document |
2 |
1 |
3 |
This example comes from the material available for Secondary 2.
If you want to learn more about this intellectual operation, see the concept sheet Establish connections between facts.
In order to identify similarities, you must find the link which explains that two or more facts are alike. On the contrary, the differences between two facts can be used to contrast. This approach can also be applied to perspectives of historical players or historians. What do their positions have in common? How are their points of view different?
The goal of the task is to provide 1 difference between the two images found in one document.
The document shows two ways of making shoes. The first image on the left is an engraving showing a man finishing a shoe by hand. The image also contains the following information: “1780. 2 pairs a day. The old style.”
The second image on the right is an engraving of a man working on a shoe with a machine. The image also contains the following information: “1880. 300 pairs a day” and “The new way.”
These two images are different because the first image shows the shoes being made using an artisanal mode of production. The second image shows the shoes being made using an industrial mode of production.
This example comes from the material available for Secondary 2.
If you wish to learn more about this intellectual operation, see the concept sheet Identify differences and similarities.
This intellectual operation is the ability to identify the cause of an event or the result of an event.
You must identify which of these four documents represent the consequences of the American Revolution.
| Document 1 | |
|---|---|
|
Source: Kurz et Allison, 1896. |
Document 1 is an image that contains “DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE” at the bottom, meaning the document relates to the United States’ Declaration of Independence. |
| Document 2 | |
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“We, the People of the United States, in order to form a more perfect Union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquility, provide for the common defense, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America.” Source: Jacques Leclerc, (n.d.). |
Document 2 is an excerpt from the Constitution of the United States. |
| Document 3 | |
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Source: New York Public Library, 1856. |
Document 3 is an engraving showing the Boston Tea Party. We understand this from the title of the engraving, since it relates to the destruction of tea in Boston Harbor. |
| Document 4 | |
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“George Washington was chosen by Congress as the first president of the United States.” Source: Alloprof, (n.d.). |
Document 4 cites George Washington as the first president of the United States. This excerpt relates to the founding of a new State and to the choice of George Washington as its first president. |
First, the Boston Tea Party is one of the events that led up to the American Revolution. We can eliminate Document 3, since it describes what occurred prior to the American Revolution as opposed to a result. We also know that the Declaration of Independence was written shortly after the Boston Tea Party. This means we can also eliminate Document 1, because the event it shows occurred near the beginning of the American Revolution. This means it cannot be a result of that revolution.
Next, we know that the Constitution was written at the end of the American Revolution, following the patriot armies winning independence. It is a direct result of the American Revolution, which means Document 2 is part of the right answer. Finally, George Washington is described as the first president of the United States in Document 4. This is an important clue because the United States was created after the American Revolution. This means that Document 4 is also a result of the American Revolution.
In this case, the answer is that documents 2 and 4 resulted from the American Revolution.
This example comes from the material available for Secondary 2.
If you want to learn more about this intellectual operation, see the concept sheet Determine causes and effects.
Three facts must be linked together in order to establish causal connections. The first fact must be linked to the second, then the second to the third (fact A → fact B → fact C). In this type of task, the documents are used to define the three facts with the intention of linking them together. Sometimes, we call this intellectual operation “the three-pronged question”.
Three topics are given:
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the fall of Constantinople;
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the great explorations;
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the European occupation of new territories.
Three documents are targeted:
| Document 1 | |
|---|---|
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“Long trips by boat were made possible with new inventions such as astrolabes, compasses and caravels, and with the advent of printing, ideas and tales of travel could be shared more widely. Navigators could go faster and farther based on their predecessors’ past trips.” Source: Alloprof, (n.d. -c). |
Document 1 deals with new inventions that made long trips by boat possible allowing navigators to travel longer distances. This document is linked to the topic of the great explorations. |
| Document 2 | |
|
“The Europeans established trading posts and settlement colonies throughout the Americas. This would create an important trade network between these new colonies and their mother countries.” Source: Alloprof, (n.d. -b). |
Document 2 discusses the establishment of trading posts and colonies, therefore linking it to the occupation of new territories. |
| Document 3 | |
|
Source: Broquière, 15th century. |
Document 3 shows a walled city surrounded by soldiers. The statement below relates the image to the conquest of the city of Constantinople seeing as it depicts a city and armed people. |
If we organize each one of these statements, your answer should be something like:
“When the Ottomans took the city of Constantinople, they prevented the Europeans from entering Asia. In turn, this pushed Europeans to use new inventions in their exploration travels allowing them to go further with the goal of finding new routes to Asia. As a result, These great explorations led to the European occupation of new territories.”
This example comes from the material available for Secondary 2.
If you want to learn more about this intellectual operation, see the concept sheet Establish causal connections.
We can distinguish what stays the same—or nearly the same—from what changes by comparing different facts. In other words, we must identify what continues or what changes.
You will use two sketch maps to indicate a change or a continuity in territory.
| Document 1 | |
|---|---|
 |
Document 1 is a map of the area surrounding the Mediterranean Sea. It shows the territories controlled by Rome near the end of the Republic in 30 B.C. |
| Document 2 | |
 |
Document 2 is another map of the area surrounding the Mediterranean Sea. This map shows the territory controlled by Rome in 235 A.D. |
If you compare the two maps, you will note that Rome controlled more territory in Document 2 than in Document 1. You could highlight this element of change. As elements of continuity, you could say that the territories surrounding the Mediterranean Sea remained under the control of the Roman Empire.
In that case, your answer could be something like this:
“An element of change is the fact that, in 235 A.D., the territories controlled by the Roman Empire were larger than in 30 B.C.
An element of continuity is the fact that the territories around the Mediterranean Sea remained under the control of the Roman Empire.”
This example comes from the material available for Secondary 1.
If you want to learn more about this intellectual operation, see the concept sheet Determine changes and continuities.
Each intellectual operation requires a different way of thinking. However, it is still possible to use the same four steps to complete the tasks linked to these intellectual operations. These steps are:
The description of this approach relates to general cases only. To learn about the cases that are specific to any one of the intellectual operations, we must look at the concept sheet describing this operation.
It is important to read the question carefully when you are faced with a task. It is likely that you will not answer correctly if you do not understand what you must do.
Read the statement carefully, then take the time to examine its main elements:
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Use one colour to highlight the action verb that indicates what you must do (indicate, explain, associate, classify, etc.).
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Using a different colour, highlight (or circle) the main subject of the task (What is it about? What is important in this question?).
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In some cases, highlight the element that you must emphasize (change, continuity, similarity, difference, cause, effect).
Indicate an element of change in the way computers worked in 1990 and 2020.
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The action verb
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The main subject
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The element that must be emphasized
Indicate, explain, determine, compare... what, exactly, do they mean?
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Indicate, name or determine
When you are asked to indicate something, it is a little like being asked to point to something. You only need to state clearly and precisely what is being identified. You do not have to give any details or explanations. -
Explain
When we are required to explain something, we must indicate what it is about, adding explanations. This means that you must specify, in a few words, why you formulated this answer. -
Compare
A question asking you to compare two or more elements is intended to make you establish a connection to analyze, criticize or distinguish similarities and differences in these elements. -
Associate
When you associate two or more elements itmeans that the elements must have something in common, such as a point of view, a social group, an era or something else. -
Classify
Classifying requires you to form groups that bring similar elements together.
Documents are very important in executing intellectual operations. At times they are filed in a documentary record and the statement in the question does not mention which of them will be necessary for each task. In these cases, we ourselves must make associations.
Once you have determined what you must do, and identified the documents needed to do so, you are ready to analyze these documents. Who What When Where Why (The 5 W’s) and the historical phrase are two methods you can use for document analysis.
The Who What When Where Why (The 5 W’s) method is used to quickly identify the important elements of the document (Who? What? When? Where? and Why?).
You use the historical phrase to summarize, in one sentence, the important elements of the document.
You can use whichever method you prefer for document analysis.
The examples of document analysis using the Who What When Where Why (The 5 W’s) method show the answers organized in a table. You do not have to draw this table when you are analyzing your documents: you only have to find the answer.
The table is designed to help you understand how to find each of the answers to the Who What When Where Why (The 5 W).
Both of these methods enable you to summarize the document by taking note of the essential information. You must still call on your personal knowledge in order to understand what is being discussed within the documents and, sometimes, to supplement with more information that does not appear in the document.
Document to be analyzed
“It is with the same sincerity that I ask today, for the women of my province, for the right to vote. Circumstances have changed at home and throughout the world, and the problem appears in a very different light due to the crisis and the war. We cannot change this. The conditions in which we are living make women equal to men. They often have the same duties and the same obligations.”
Source: Excerpt from Adélard Godbout’s speech to the Legislative Assembly on April 11, 1940.
| Who? |
|---|
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Adélard Godbout |
| This information is in the title of the document. |
| When? |
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April 11, 1940 |
| This information is in the document source reference. |
| What? |
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Women’s right to vote |
| This information is in the text of the document. |
| Where? |
|
At the Legislative Assembly in the Province of Quebec |
| Since we know that Adélard Godbout was the Premier of Quebec, we can deduce that the Legislative Assembly in question was in Quebec. |
It was Adélard Godbout who requested the right to vote for the women of Quebec in 1940.
Source: Samuel de Champlain, Map of New France, 1632.
| Who? |
|---|
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Samuel de Champlain |
| This information is in the source of the document. |
| When? |
|
In 1632 |
| This information is in the source of the document. |
| What? |
|
A map of New France |
| We can see that the document is a map and the source of the document indicates which territory is mapped. |
| Where? |
|
In New France |
| The map shows the northeast part of North America. When the map was published, the majority of these territories were part of New France which the document source confirms. |
Samuel de Champlain mapped the territory of New France in 1632.
Now that you know what you must do, and you have analyzed the documents related to the task, you must make connections between the information taken from these documents and your own knowledge. What do you know and what can you say about the task to complete and the documents you have read?
You don’t need to recall all of the knowledge you have on a subject. Tell yourself that the documents were chosen to help you remember what is essential, and to focus on what is most important for this task. In order to organize your knowledge you may want to take some notes.
Document to be analyzed
“It is with the same sincerity that I ask today, for the women of my province, for the right to vote. Circumstances have changed at home and throughout the world, and the problem appears in a very different light due to the crisis and the war. We cannot change this. The conditions in which we are living make women equal to men. They often have the same duties and the same obligations.”
Source: Extract from Adélard Godbout’s speech to the Legislative Assembly on April 11, 1940.
| Who? |
|---|
| Adélard Godbout |
| This information is in the title of the document. |
| When? |
| April 11, 1940 |
| This information is in the document source reference. |
| What? |
| Women’s right to vote |
| This information is in the text of the document. |
| Where? |
| At the Legislative Assembly in the Province of Quebec |
| Since we know that Adélard Godbout was the Premier of Quebec, we can deduce that the Legislative Assembly in question was in Quebec. |
Historical phrase
It was Adélard Godbout who requested the right to vote for the women of Quebec in 1940.
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I know that in 1940, Canada participated in World War II. This is the war that Adélard Godbout mentioned in his speech.
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I know that Adélard Godbout was the Premier of Quebec. This is the province he was referring to in his speech and this is why the speech was given to the Legislative Assembly.
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I know that, since many men had gone to the front, a number of women had replaced them in offices and factories. This is what Adélard Godbout was talking about when he referred to the “conditions in which we are living” and “She [a woman] often has the same duties and the same obligations [as a man].”
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I know that women had the right to vote at the Canadian federal level before they obtained this right at the provincial level in Quebec.
Source: Samuel de Champlain, Map of New France, 1632.
| Who? |
|---|
| Samuel de Champlain |
| This information is in the source of the document. |
| When? |
| In 1632 |
| This information is in the source of the document. |
| What? |
| A map of New France |
| We can see that the document is a map and the source of the document indicates which territory is mapped. |
| Where? |
| In New France |
| The map shows the northeast part of North America. At the time that the map was published, the majority of these territories were part of New France which the document source confirms. |
Historical phrase
Samuel de Champlain mapped the territory of New France in 1632.
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I know that Samuel de Champlain made many trips between France and New France.
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I know that Champlain mapped the territory of New France.
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I know that Champlain founded the City of Quebec.
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I know that the Europeans arrived by ship. This means that maps of coasts and waterways were very useful to them in finding their destinations.
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I know that the territory of New France was first concentrated in the St. Lawrence Valley, and then expanded much further west and south, until it reached its current boundaries.
Every intellectual operation leads to different tasks. Sometimes you must fill in a table with the letter or number that matches the documents; other times you will have to make complete sentences in order to identify continuity or change; or you may even need to arrange the documents in chronological order. At this point, you must adapt to each intellectual operation.
The important thing to remember is that you must always give a complete answer to what is being asked in the task. Normally, tasks require specific answer formats.
For example, if you must write the letter of a document in a table, you will not have to circle the letter or document itself. Answer format to the intellectual operation Determine Changes and Continuities must be in the form of complete sentences and follow this kind of format: “An element of continuity is (...). “An element of change is (...).”
Assemblée nationale. (1940). Débats de l’Assemblée législative. 21e Législature — 1re session. Vol. 1 - Séances du 20 février au 17 mai 1940 [Document PDF]. https://www.bibliotheque.assnat.qc.ca/DepotNumerique_v2/AffichageNotice.aspx?idn=49473
Auteur inconnu. (15e siècle). Clovis tue Alaric II [Enluminure]. Wikipedia. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Clovis_tue_Alaric_II.jpg
Auteur inconnu. (1540). Heures à l’usage de Rome - Labour et semailles [Enluminure]. Initiale. Catalogue de manuscrits enluminés. http://initiale.irht.cnrs.fr/decor/1360
de la Broquière, B. (1401-1500). Voyage en la terre d’oultre mer [Manuscrit]. Bibliothèque nationale de France. https://archivesetmanuscrits.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cc542021
Champlain, S. (1632). Carte de la Nouvelle France, augmentée depuis la dernière, servant à la navigation faicte en son vray meridien, par le Sr. de Champlain capitaine pour le Roy en la Marine lequel depuis l’an 1603 jusques en l’année 1629 ; a descouvert plusieurs costes, terres, lacs, rivières et nations de sauvages, par cy devant incognuës, comme il se voit en ses relations quil a faict imprimer en 1632, ou il se voit cette marque ... ce sont habitations qu’ont faict les François [Carte]. Bibliothèque et Archives nationales du Québec. https://numerique.banq.qc.ca/patrimoine/details/52327/2246880
Kurz & Allison. (1896). Fac-simile of the original draught of the Declaration of Independence in general Congress assembled 4th July, 1776 [Document]. Library of Congress. https://www.loc.gov/pictures/item/2003656533/
Leclerc, J. (s.d.). Constitution des États-Unis d’Amérique (1787) - Traduction du gouvernement des États-Unis. L’aménagement linguistique dans le monde. https://www.axl.cefan.ulaval.ca/amnord/USA-Constitution1787.htm
Méliot, J. (15e siècle). Vie et miracles de Notre Dame, en prose française [Manuscrit]. p. 19 r. https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/btv1b8451109t/f49.item.zoom
The Miriam and Ira D. Wallach Division of Art, Prints and Photographs: Picture Collection. (1856). Destruction of the tea in Boston Harbour [Image]. New York Public Library. https://digitalcollections.nypl.org/items/510d47e0-f4ed-a3d9-e040-e00a18064a99
Walker, J.H. (1880). La nouvelle façon : 300 paires par jour, 1880 [Gravure]. Musée McCord. http://collections.musee-mccord.qc.ca/scripts/viewobject.php?Lang=2§ion=false&accessnumber=M930.50.5.142&imageID=303037&pageMulti=1