The United Nations (UN) usually organizes or authorizes interventions in states that are experiencing tension or conflict. It is uncommon for a state or international organization to intervene without the UN’s consent. When the UN directly intervenes in a state with the goal of creating favorable conditions for ending the conflict, it does so primarily through peace missions.
The purpose of these missions is to ensure the safety of the population and to support states in their efforts to restore and maintain peace. Peace missions are often called peacekeeping operations. To find out where the UN’s various peacekeeping operations are located, consult this interactive map.
These peacekeeping operations are carried out by deploying UN peacekeepers, also known as Blue Helmets, into the field. The Blue Helmets are not UN soldiers, since the UN has no military forces of its own. Instead, they are soldiers that the UN member states deploy on behalf of the UN. This temporary military force is directed by the Security Council.
On the ground, the mission of the peacekeepers is to protect civilians, assist in disarmament, uphold the rule of law, help organize free elections and promote respect for basic human rights.
The rule of law refers to the idea that all individuals, even those with political or military power (governments, leaders, etc.) are accountable to the same laws. In other words, no one is above the law. Laws and their enforcement must be independent of any other authority so as not to be influenced or corrupted.The laws must also be compatible with international human rights.
Source: Desitriviantie, Christina. “Indonesia’s UN peacekeeper troops,” May 18, 2011.
Certain important conditions must be met before the UN’s peacekeepers are sent on a peace mission. These conditions are based on principles that respect a state’ sovereignty and emphasize peaceful intervention.
Sovereignty is the absolute power of a state to govern itself by making its own laws and enforcing them within its territory. A sovereign state is independent, meaning that it cannot be controlled by any other state or institution.
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Fundamental Principles of UN Peace Operations |
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Peacekeepers cannot impose peace by force. They can only use force in self-defence or to fulfill their mandate, in which case they need authorization from the Security Council. |
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Peacekeepers cannot favour one side over another. If they fail to remain impartial, one or more parties could decide to withdraw their consent, therefore jeopardizing the operation. |
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A peacekeeping operation requires consent of the main parties involved in the conflict. This grants the peacekeepers the freedom of action they need to fulfill their mandate. If all parties do not consent to the operation, it may be viewed as favouring one side over the other and worsen the conflict. However, there are instances where the UN does intervene without consent for humanitarian reasons. It’s important to note, just because a head of state gives consent for an intervention of their territory, it does not necessarily mean that the soldiers on the ground agree with this decision. |
These principles are used to select countries to participate in peace missions by providing financial aid, sending soldiers, etc. For a country to participate, the belligerent parties must, in theory, give their consent and the country must remain neutral towards the conflicting countries.
A belligerent is a person or state at war.
In 1994, during the Rwandan genocide, and the Bosnian genocide (1992 to 1995), peacekeepers actions were heavily criticized because they failed to prevent either genocide. The Security Council never authorized the peacekeepers to use force, so they had to watch helplessly. To prevent this from happening again, the UN made changes to its peacekeeping policy.
In 2013, the first offensive peacekeeping mission was set up in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) to combat rebel groups in the eastern part of the country. This operation had a robust mandate issued by the Security Council. This allowed peacekeepers to use any means necessary, including armed force, to protect civilians, maintain public order and establish peace. Visit the following site to learn more about this mission: ‘Intervention Brigade’ Authorized as Security Council Grants Mandate Renewal for United Nations Mission in Democratic Republic of Congo
The two types of peace missions that use force are called robust peacekeeping missions and peace enforcement missions. In theory they are different and use force in different ways, but in practice it is difficult to tell them apart. Visit the following site to learn more: Principles of Peacekeeping | United Nations Peacekeeping.
Some argue that the peacekeepers using force to enforce peace is a good thing, since they can finally intervene and protect themselves properly, while others argue that it is dangerous both for the peacekeepers and the local populations.
Although peacekeepers are impartial and therefore not involved in conflicts, this does not protect them from attacks by various actors involved in the conflicts. This is what happened in December 2017 in the Democratic Republic of Congo. A total of 15 peacekeepers were killed by the Ugandan Muslim armed group Allied Democratic Forces (ADF). It was the worst attack against peacekeepers since the 1993 attack in Somalia when 24 soldiers were killed.
UN peacekeeping operations do not have absolute power and are not always as effective as the UN would hope. Some are successful, while others fail. This limited effectiveness can be explained by two important factors: disagreements between UN members and the UN’s limited financial capacity.
Disagreements between the permanent members of the UN Security Council are a major hindrance to peacekeeping operations. The permanent members have a right of veto that allows them to block any decision, including the deployment of a peace mission or a step in the peace process.
In September 2019, Russia and China used their right of veto to block a resolution to impose a ceasefire in Idlib, Syria. In December 2019, Russia and China used their right of veto again to block a proposal to send humanitarian aid to Syrian civilians. Since the Syrian conflict began in 2011, Russia has used its right of veto 14 times. Russia and China support Syria, so when resolutions against the regime are put on the table, such as sanctions against Syria for the use of chemical weapons, they use their right of veto to block the resolutions. In 2012, when Russia and China used their right of veto against a resolution condemning the violent repression by the regime of Syrian President Bashar al-Assad, the Syrian National Council (SNC) called it a “licence to kill.”
The UN also has limited financial resources. Peacekeeping operations are funded by all UN member states. However, the budget is not very high. The budget for peacekeeping operations between July 1, 2019, and June 30, 2020, was $6.5 billion US dollars. In comparison, in 2019, Canada spent close to $29.5 billion on military spending, and the US spent around $731.5 billion.
Peace missions are often deployed to implement and monitor the different steps in a peace process. As part of this peace process, the UN intervenes in cooperation with the countries involved in the conflict and sometimes with other countries, which may act as mediators.
The UN intervenes at different times during a conflict. It first promotes prevention through diplomatic interventions by facilitating discussions between representatives of different groups and countries. Peacekeeping operations are also deployed for prevention purposes in countries with high levels of tensions. When conflicts break out, peace operations try to create an ideal environment for peace to return. After a conflict is over, the UN’s role continues, as it also has a peacebuilding mandate. This helps countries coming out of conflict. The UN tries to reduce the risk of the conflict returning and to build the foundations for lasting peace. It does so by ensuring that the parties involved in a conflict respect the terms of the peace agreement.
But when a conflict breaks out before a peace agreement can be reached, other steps need to be followed using means other than peacekeepers. It is important to remember that not all of these steps are used to resolve a conflict and they are not always carried out in the exact same order. There may be some back and forth between steps.
First, the UN always tries to resolve tension and conflicts through diplomacy. This means that representatives of the different groups and states in conflict are brought in to discuss and try to reach a solution. This helps to avoid, or at least reduce, the suffering and enormous costs caused by conflict. If diplomatic intervention fails, the UN has the option of implementing more restrictive measures.
One such measure is severing diplomatic relations. When a country is considered a threat to international peace and security, other countries may cut diplomatic ties with the belligerent country. For example, embassies in the belligerent country may be closed and the ambassadors sent back to their home countries. The goal is to send a strong message of disapproval.
A trade embargo can also be put in place. This means that countries stop trading with the country that is threatening security and peace. The more countries that participate in the embargo, the bigger the impact. If the Security Council supports an embargo, all UN member states must enforce it. Consequently, an embargo supported by the Security Council can be very effective.
If diplomatic interventions and non-military sanctions fail, the Security Council can approve military intervention against the country that is threatening international peace and security. On rare occasions, military intervention happens without formal approval from all Security Council members.
When one of the first three methods work, the fighting ceases and violence ends between all parties involved in the conflict.
Sometimes the end of fighting is declared as a ceasefire. These ceasefires are temporary and if the parties fail to reach an agreement before the ceasefire ends and it is not renewed, there is a possibility that hostilities will resume. It may be necessary to revert back to non-military sanctions or the use of military force to try to stop the fighting again to facilitate diplomatic intervention and a peace conference.
In response to the coronavirus pandemic, the UN called for a global ceasefire on March 23, 2020. To find out more about this, visit the following page: UN Secretary-General Calls for Global Ceasefire to Focus on Ending the COVID-19 Pandemic.
Once the fighting has ceased, a time and place are chosen to hold a peace conference. At this conference, representatives from the countries or major groups involved in the conflict meet and negotiate. These conferences are usually held in a neutral location, such as a country that has no involvement in the conflict.
A peace conference often concludes with the signing of a treaty, a formal agreement that sets out the conditions for keeping the peace. The countries involved have to make concessions and compromises to create a treaty that is approved and signed by all parties.
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